Rome - History's Greatest Witness

Otherwise known as the Eternal City, 2,700 year-old Rome has been present at and played a role in countless historical events.

Modern Rome boasts cutting-edge fashions housed in centuries-old buildings. The streets stream with Fiats, Alfa Romeos and Maseratis, dented and scratched to show their traffic mettle, whizzing by ancient monuments seemingly without a thought, and squares teem with people, life and energy so palpable most don't bother to sit to sip their cappuccinos.

The capital of Italy, Rome has a population of 2.5 million proud citizens whose ancestors have invested in maintaining their city's reputation as a centre for culture. Hotels, shops and restaurants have been passed down through the years, with each new generation adding their own influence while carefully safeguarding the secrets of the family business.

	Outside of St. Peter's Basilica

A trip to Rome requires a bit of research. The number of sights are positively mind-boggling, and the pace sometimes hectic. Without planning ahead it's easy to wander past some of the lesser-known sights without a hint of their significance.

Attractions range from hundreds of fountains fed by ancient aqueducts, to several museums including the Vatican, which has been argued to hold the most comprehensive art collection in the world and is home to the magnificent St. Peter's Basilica. Dozens of smaller, but equally ornate churches pepper the city, as do palaces, gardens, statues and stadiums — all signs of the great artists that have been inspired by Rome's energy.

Orientation
Located in the belly of Italy, Rome's host region, Latium, has a landscape comprised of hills and lakes, and a west coast that lies along the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Rome is a large city, but its historic centre is relatively small and easily walkable. Most of the city's major attractions lie within this area, defined by the 406 km (252 mi) River Tiber to the west, the gardens of the Villa Borghese to the north, Stazione Termini (Rome's central train station) to the east and the Roman Forum to the south.

HISTORY OF ROME

Ancient Rome: 600-27 BC
The area where Rome now lies was initially populated by Latins and Etruscans, and arguments over who would control the region began early. The Etruscans, originally from Mesopotamia, conquered Latin-held Rome around 600 BC.

	Romans kneel before Caesar

A small portion of Etruscans reigned the newly-founded Roman Republic until its citizens began attempting to oust their government from power, succeeding somewhere around 250 BC. After such a long battle, the Roman military did not simply stop there. It continued to spread its influence with one decisive military victory after another, and, by 49 BC, the resulting empire spanned the continent of Europe, parts of southeast Asia and some of northern Africa.

From 59 BC on, the army had been led by the charismatic military expert Julius Caesar, whose exploits in the field captured imaginations and became the stuff of legend. Caesar's talents further extended Rome's empire as far north as Belgium and included the entirety of modern-day France.

By 49 BC, Caesar's term as general was up. He had been assured a position of power after retirement, but his original cohorts in government had since been removed from their lofty circumstances. After having been far away from the decision-makings of Rome for so many years, he was concerned about his reception upon returning.

This predicament would lead Caesar to make his legendary crossing of the Rubicon and march on his own city, forcing a civil war that would last until 43 BC, eventually being decided in his favour and thus crowning Caesar the undisputed leader of the Roman Empire. He pardoned all those who had fought against him, but his peace was short-lived. Only one year later Caesar was murdered by Marcus Junius Brutus and other conspirators in the Senate.

War continued for 14 more years until a stable government was established. In 27 BC, Augustus, a great-nephew of Caesar's, became Rome's first emperor.

The Roman Empire & the Growth of Christianity: 27-500 AD
Augustus is touted as the greatest Roman emperor, one who brought order and stability to his people. He embarked on a period of social reform for Romans, emphasizing the arts and education. He also focused his efforts towards the reconstruction of Rome, instigating the foundations of many buildings so grandiose they would not be completed until long after his death in the year 14 AD.

By 100 AD, the city of Rome had 1.5 million citizens. Christianity began gaining popularity and several underground churches were established. Meanwhile, the Roman military started to lose ground and the Empire began to slowly shrink. Rome's numerous emperors passed on war to their successors for centuries, also battling amongst themselves and with the church, creating instability and lasciviousness in a recently well-behaved Rome.

After losing serious ground to Germanic soldiers in 476 AD, the last of the Roman emperors, Augustulus Romulus, was defeated. By 500 AD, the Lombards, originally from eastern Germany, invaded the city of Rome. It is widely believed if not for the leadership of Pope Gregory I, Rome would have perished. Gregory I negotiated with the Lombards for peace when the temporal leader (the exarch) of Rome would not. Thus, the church took its initial steps to separate itself from the state and retain the right to make its own decisions. Four of Rome's greatest basilicas were built during Gregory's reign, and he sent missionaries as far as what is now the United Kingdom.

Medieval Rome - 500-1400 AD
Rome suffered through battles between the Lombards and the powerful Byzantines for almost 1,000 years. Plumbing and drainage systems were destroyed, disease spread, and by 500 AD the population had dwindled to between 50,000 and 70,000. And still, there was a constant struggle for power between the popes and the exarchs.

	A temple at the Roman Forum

As a result, the Papal States emerged. Areas where the popes could exercise both theological and temporal power, the Papal States existed in Italy, France (namely Avignon) and northern Africa. Religious leaders began to abandon Rome for less violent, more pious, lands.

The city fell to the hands of the wealthy, who would battle other families for control of the government, and the city began to fall to ruin. Aqueducts had been vandalized or fell into disrepair, and the grounds of the Roman Forum, once the home of the Senate and a centre of trade and commerce, became a field for grazing cattle.

Renaissance Rome -1400-1600 AD
The primary Papal State, called the Vatican or "Holy See", had Rome as its capital and included the regions of Latium, Umbria and Marche. Pontiffs were beginning to return from France to the Vatican, starting with Pope Gregory XI in 1377. They wished to spread their influence as both moral and governmental leaders. They understood the most effective way to gain and retain the support of the people, thus maintaining a position of authority, would be to rebuild the city and improve its infrastructure. The leading artists and architects in the world, at the height of their talents, were summoned to inject their influence into projects like the Sistine Chapel and St. Peter's Basilica. The likes of Michelangelo (Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni), Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio) and Sandro Botticelli, were to spend some of their most creative moments in Rome, thus characterizing the Renaissance movement for the rest of the world.

	Bernini's Trevi Fountain

Baroque Rome - 1600-1750 AD
Three busy popes, Urban VIII (Maffeo Barberini, r. 1623–44), Innocent X (G. B. Pamphilj, r. 1644–55), and Alexander VII (Fabio Chigi, r. 1655–67) commissioned several works from sculptors and painters during the Baroque Period that are both theatrical and wondrous. The names Bernini (Gian Lorenzo) and Borromini (Francesco) are repeated over and over as their endless influence on the creation of fountains, piazzas, palaces and the Vatican State is evident from one end of the city centre to the other. Baroque art is typically bold, curving and elaborate, satiating the hungry eyes of an art lover.

Modern Rome - 1750 AD -Present
Continuous conflicts had left Italy divided into 10 scattered and individual states. The Napoleanic Wars had transfered power in Lombardy to the French and the Austrians, but what represents modern-day Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, Veneto, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna (mainly Parma) existed free from outside control.

A push was made for unification, beginning with Veneto, Piemonte and Sardinia teaming with France to defeat the Austrians 1859. The north was united again, to be followed by the Parma, Modena, Naples and, the reluctant Sicily.

In 1870, Italy became whole again.

The 20th century would bring more struggle and strife to Rome, starting with the First World War. Italy, although in an alliance with Germany and Austria since 1882, refused to honour its pact and declared war against Austria-Hungary in 1915, and against Germany in 1916. Rome remained relatively untouched as Italy's armies held their ground at the Paive River, which ends near Venice.

The ensuing depression, caused by returning troops, high unemployment and weakened global trade, left Italy stunned, dispirited and susceptible to the advances of smooth-talker Benito Mussolini. A section of revolutionaries had broken with the Socialists over the issue of Italy's entry into the First World War, and also touted Italy's need to bring industry under the control of labour unions. Mussolini agreed with them, and joined Milan's wing of their group, termed the Fascio. A newspaper editor who had once been expelled from school for stabbing a fellow classmate, in 1914 Mussolini began publishing the Il Popolo d'Italia (The Italian People). He exploited fears of instability instigated by the depression with relentless propaganda, gaining enough support so that, five years later, he was able to form his own political party, the Fasci di Combattimento.

Mussolini was elected to Parliament in 1921. Italy became a fascist state in 1922, when the King of Italy, Vittorio Emanuele III, invited Mussolini to form a new government after liberal groups failed to retain hold of their influence. Mussolini created the Fascisti, a type of special police force consisting of groups of armed veterans who would terrorize any outspoken critics. Italy entered the Second World War on the side of Nazi Germany, leaving it prey to many allied attacks. Facism had been maintained for more than 20 years until 1943, when Mussolini overstrained his military attempting to annex Albania. He lost the support of his colleagues and was stripped of his power. A few months later he was rescued during a dangerous coup by the German military, and set up a rogue government in Gargnano (northern Italy). Shortly after that, however, he was recaptured by the Allieds and put to death, along with his mistress Claretta Petacci, in the spring of 1945.

During the Second World War Rome suffered considerable damage, particularly to San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, a 1,600 year-old church where the revered St. Lawrence is entombed, and fell to the allies in 1944. Before that, Mussolini had been arrested, imprisoned and stripped of his powers. After a short liberation by the Germans, he was captured and executed in 1945.

The Rome of the 21st century has been adapted to support its main industry — tourism. Rome's Jubilee Year in 2000 attracted 16 million Catholic pilgrims, and billions were spent transforming the city. Churches and squares were cleaned, roads improved and the tourist board refurbished. Never before had Rome's amenities been so accessible and informative.

CULTURAL ATTRACTIONS

Ancient Rome
The Roman Forum was the political and economic centre of Rome from its inception around 600 BC, to its abandonment due to disuse around 400 AD. Ruins from edifices built and torn down are jumbled together in a microcosm of Rome's earliest history. In a valley between four of Rome's famous seven hills, the Forum still houses the Curia, which was a meeting place for the senate, and the Imperial Rostra, where great orators addressed the public. There are also the Temples of Saturn and Vesta, among others, and two remaining basilicas, the Julia and the Aemilia, were both completed by Augustus as part of his push for cultural restoration.

	The Pantheon's ancient facade

Originally built as a Roman temple and later acting out the role of a church, the Pantheon, which literally means, "All the Gods", remains entirely intact more than 2,000 years after its erection, the only great Roman building to do so. Marcus Agrippa designed the structure in 27 BC, and before the 20th century, it had required more concrete to construct than any other building in the world.

The exact construction date of Circus Maximus isn't known, but has been narrowed down to around 600 BC. Able to seat as many as 250,000 spectators, its 620 m (2,037 ft) track held charging chariots and wild animal exhibitions to the delight of the crowd. Laps were originally counted by tilting wooden eggs, which were later substituted, by Agrippa with bronze dolphins in 33 BC.

The Roman Empire
Romans spent much of their time improving roads and building aqueducts for irrigation and hygiene, and much of their work remains in operation today. Many of the fountains in the city's centre are still fed through these ancient pipe systems.

	The inside of the Colosseum

The aptly-named Colosseum is probably most recognizable and impressive structure remaining from the days of gladiators who dueled each other, the odd lion, or, other, equally deadly beasts. Built between 70 and 80 AD, the architect(s) are unknown. The Colosseum held 50,000 people, had 80 entrances and exits, and could, amazingly, be flooded in order to stage elaborate naval battles.

It was also during this time that the ornate, carved, marble Arches of Titus ( 81 AD), and Severus (205 AD), were added at the Roman Forum, erected to commemorate the achievements of past emperors during times of both war and of peace.

Renaissance Rome
Much of what is synonymous with Roman art was created during the Renaissance. Designed by Giacomo della Porta, St. Peter's Basilica covers an area of 23,000 sq. m (247,480 sq. ft.) Construction began in 1506 and was not completed until 1626. Michelangelo became the chief architect in 1546, designing the massive cupola and leaving behind several priceless works like la Pieta, a sculpture of the Madonna cradling her son after the crucifixion, and the fabulous Sistine Chapel, which is accessible from inside the Vatican Museums. The square out front of the basilica was designed by Bernini and was constructed between 1656 and 1667. Among other features, like the Doric colonnades topped with representations of former religious leaders that frame the oval "square", the centre of the piazza holds a 3,300 year-old Egyptian obelisk that stretches to the sky.

Other examples of Renaissance Rome are the Farnese Palace. Erected in 1534, the palace was designed by Antonio da Sangello and modified by Michelangelo in 1546. Its arched windows, frescoes and cornice are all examples of high Renaissance design. The elegant Palazzo Massimo (1536) is proportionate to its surroundings, and curves along what was the Papal Way, now the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. A relatively simple facade belies architect Baldassare Peruzzi's richly decorated inner rooms.

Baroque Rome
Trevi Fountain celebrates the end of Rome's still-functioning aqueducts. Originally commissioned in 1629 to Bernini, the project was abandoned because of Pope Urban VIII's death and not completed until 1762 by Nicola Salvi. The theme is "taming of the waters", and depicts Neptune valiantly attempting to tame wild seahorses.

	The popular Spanish Steps

Built between 1721 and 1725 with French funds, the 135 Spanish Steps lead down to one of the chicest shopping districts in the world, Piazza di Spagna, and up to the church Trinità dei Monti.

Bernini's Piazza Navona, near the Pantheon, boasts three exceptional fountains, with one of which has been deemed his best work, the Fontana dei Fiumi (1651). The Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone also stands in the square, where, in the third century AD, 12-year-old St. Agnes refused to marry a pagan and was beheaded, thus making her a martyr.

Modern Rome
There are several examples of what is termed fascist architecture, as Mussolini did his best to leave his handprint on Rome. Myriads of engravings of DVCE (meaning Il Duce or "the leader", Mussolini's nickname for himself) around the city have been since scratched out, but Rome's southern suburb of EUR (short for Esposizione Universale Romana) still bears evidence of the days of fascism. A mass of apartments and offices now use buildings originally meant for a pet project of Mussolini's — the 1941 World Exhibition, celebrating Fascist Italy and the 20th anniversary of the Fascist regime. Eventually usurped by the dirty business of the Second World War, the enterprise was abandoned.

The huge and leaky Museum of Roman Civilization was commissioned by Mussolini during this time, as well as the now mostly unused Palazzo della Civiltà di Lavoro, or, as unaffectionately termed by locals, the "Square Colosseum."

Later on in the 20th century the buildings of architect Pier Luigi Nervi also appear in this area, with the domed Palazzeto dello Sport, built for the 1960 Olympics, and the 82,000 seat Stadio Olimpico, home to both the Roma and Lazio football teams.

Museums
Aside from the world-famous Vatican Museums, Rome has several other houses of history to visit. The Museum of Roman Civilization features a scale model of Rome at the height of its power near the end of the Empire. The National Etruscan Museum is where one will find several artefacts from the ancient times of the Etruscans, with one of the most valued treasures in the museum being a bride and groom's coffin dating back to 600 BC.

Housed in the 15th century palace of Princess Cornelia Costanza Barberini and Prince Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra, the National Gallery of Ancient Art's first floor has paintings by Raphael and Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi), and the second floor has rococo apartments retained in their original glory and featuring silk linens, artful frescoes and canopied beds.

The Municipal Gallery of Modern Art's collection is comprised of 19th and 20th century works by Italian artists the likes of Boccioni, and international artists such as Degas, Monet, Van Gogh and even Jackson Pollock.

Finally, the National Museum of Palazzo Venezia pays homage to its roots. The Palazzo Venezia played the role of the Austrian Embassy until the end of the First World War, and shortly after became home to Mussolini's fascist regime and the seat of the Italian government.

	Faithful gather at Piazza di San Pietro

TRANSPORTATION
Rome largest airport, Leonardo da Vinci, is 26 km (16 mi) from the city's centre. The easiest and most economical way to get to the city is to take the Stazione Termini direct train, which ends at Rome's main train station. From there, the city is accessible through public transit. Single ride, daily and weekly passes are available for both the metros and buses. Most buses run from 5:30 to 12 am, and the metro runs from 5:30 am to 11:30 pm every day except for Saturday, when the hours are extended to 12:30 am.

The metro system in Rome is safe, simple to navigate and the best way to tour the city without a guide or a taxi driver. Taxis are notoriously expensive, however, and the meter is turned on the moment the call is made, not when the fare is picked up. Taxis will have to be called, as drivers will not respond to hailing from a sidewalk. Licenced taxis are all white or all yellow. Unlicenced cabbies are rife at the train stations and airports and will often charge the unknowing tourist extra.

Pickpockets operate in Rome just like in any other major tourist city. They come in all shapes and sizes and have all kinds of tricks. On crowded metros, most carry backpacks and bags in front of themselves so as to have eye-contact with and access to its contents at all times. A back pocket is not a secure place for a wallet. Currency and other important, non-replacable items are usually kept underneath clothes in a moneybelt or locked in a safe at a hotel.

Most of central Rome is closed to traffic other than residential, so bringing a vehicle would require trying to find a way to park legally for the day and include a fair jaunt to the attractions. Driving is not recommended unless a day trip outside of the city is planned.

Hop-on, hop-off bus tours are popular, but simply strolling the streets will certainly result in stumbling across most major sites, and, perhaps, an intimate restaurant or cozy café.

CLIMATE
Seasons in Italy follow the same pattern of those in western Europe and North America. Spring begins in March and is quite pleasant, although early in the season can be rainy. By the end of the month of May, however, the city averages about ten hours of sunshine each day.

The summer months of July and August are when most native Romans abandon their hometown for cooler climes. It can become unbearably hot, but, thankfully, Rome's evenings tend to be cooler. Tourists abound in the city, and there can be lengthy line-ups for attractions.

September remains warm, and the temperature remains mild right until October's end. Vineyards bloom before autumn's grape-harvesting season begins, there are fewer tourists and the weather is perfect for walking from attraction to attraction. Bring an umbrella, though — October and November are Rome's wettest months.

The winter months from January to February are cold and windy at times, but accommodation is easy to find and it's sometimes possible to strike a deal with the proprietor. Overall, the weather is more sunny than not, and attractions are far less crowded.